Introduction

Socialism in Britain has been created by the melding of many different influences. Its history stretches back to the English Civil War of 1642-51, when the divine right of kings to rule was challenged. Through organisations such as the Levellers, the Chartists, the Christian Socialists and the Labour Party, it has developed until the present day, with a variety of thinkers guiding the movement.

This article is not meant to be a comprehensive history of the British Socialist movement, but rather a discussion of how the labour movement reached the point where it is today, with some suggestions for how the movement should develop in the future. Chapter 1 deals with the historical developments up to the creation of the Labour Representative Committee in 1900. Chapter 2 deals with the development of the Labour Party from 1900 to 2000. Chapter 3 suggests some future movement to develop the labour movement in the 21st century.

Section 1 - The Levellers

The Levellers were very much a product of the English Civil War. John Lilburne was an officer in the Parliamentary army who argued that is was wrong that there were many men in the army who were fighting for the rights of Parliament over the crown, yet did not have the right to vote for members of that Parliament. In 1645 he, along with John Wildman, Richard Overton and Willaim Walwyn, began the political party called the Levellers. The political programme of the party included voting rights for all adult males, annual elections, complete religious freedom, an end to the censorship of books and newspapers, the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords, trial by jury, an end to taxation of people earning less than £30 a year and a maximum interest rate of 6%.

The movement grew rapidly, and in 1646 "Agitators" were elected from each regiment of the army to take part in the Putney Debates, which began in October 1647 and debated the merits of a constitutional proposal drafted by the Levellers. Many senior members of the Parliamentary army, in general land owners themselves, argued strongly against the idea of universal suffrage. Others, notably Thomas Rainsborough supported the Levellers. He argued that "every man that is to live under a government ought first by his own consent be put himself under that government." This is still a powerful argument for democracy - the act of voting shows the consent of the voters to place themselves under the government that is ultimately elected.

However, the result of the Putney Debates was never put to the House of Commons. With senior members of the New Model Army (the Parliamentary army) still opposing these reforms, the Levellers called for the soldiers to revolt. The four founders of the party were arrested and imprisoned in March 1649. However, a jury refused to convict the first to be put on trial, John Lilburne. The four were subsequently released on the 8th of November 1649.

John Lilburne continued to agitate for universal suffrage by publishing pamphlets. Eventually, Cromwell again had him imprisoned. Again, he was found not guilty, and on his release resumed writing pamphlets criticising Cromwell. Ultimately he was banished, and lived in Holland. After attempting to return to England, he was arrested, and spent many years in various prisons. Following his eventual release in 1656, he died at his home in 1657, aged 43.

The Levellers introduced a vital concept of political theory. They argued that a man should not be ruled over unless he gave his consent. This was a natural progression from the struggle of Parliament against the divine right of kings to rule. However, the leaders of Parliament in the Civil War were themselves landowners, and the struggle could in some way be said to be more about their right not to be ruled over without consent - not for the common man to be free from the same tyranny. As Cromwell is reported to have put it "What is the purport of the levelling principle but to make the tenant as liberal a fortune as the landlord. I was by birth a gentleman. You must cut these people in pieces or they will cut you in pieces."

Section 2 - The Diggers

The Diggers were an overt socialist group, who were influenced strongly by the ideas of the Levellers. The leader of the movement was Gerrard Winstanley, a freeman of the Merchant Taylors' Company. The Civil War destroyed his business and led to him and his family relying on the charity of his friends.

In 1648 he published four pamphlets arguing that all land belonged to the community, not the individual. He published a famous pamphlet in January 1649 called The New Law of Righteousness, and set up the Diggers movement. In the pamphlet he argued "In the beginning of time God made the earth. Not one word was spoken at the beginning that one branch of mankind should rule over another, but selfish imaginations did set up one man to teach and rule over another."

Digger groups began to spring up across the country. They would take over common land and sow crops, creating communes. Local landowners were disturbed by this development, and in July 1649 the New Model Army was ordered to break up the communes, to "disperse the people by force" in case this is the "beginning to whence things of a greater and more dangerous consequence may grow".

Winstanley continued to argue for the fair redistribution of land, and in 1652 attacked Oliver Cromwell in a pamphlet entitled The Law of Freedom, writing "And now you have the power of the land in your hand, you must do one of these two things. First, either set the land free to the oppressed commoners, who assisted you, and paid the Army their wages; and then you will fulfil the Scriptures and your own engagements, and so take possession of your deserved honour. Or secondly, you must only remove the Conqueror's power out of the King's hand into other men's".

Winstanley further argued for a society without wages or money, but built on common endeavour. These ideas began to be popular with the people of England, but following the Restoration discussion on how society should be ordered was stopped. Winstanley died in 1676.

The Diggers were an overtly socialist organisation, appearing to be a precursor to communism. Winstanley argued "The earth is to be planted and the fruits reaped and carried into barns and storehouses by the assistance of every family. And if any man or family want corn or other provision, they may go to the storehouses and fetch without money. If they want a horse to ride, go into the fields in summer, or to the common stables in winter, and receive one from the keepers, and when your journey is performed, bring him where you had him, without money." This is easily recognisable as a communist system. This idea of a rural utopian communism continued to have an effect on socialist arguments for many years.

Section 3 - The Chartists

The Chartists were one of the most important political groups to have existed in Britain. While they were not directly successful, many of their policies were implemented following the collapse of the movement by 1848.

By 1830, there were a number of rotten boroughs in the country, areas which still had the right to elect MPs but which in reality had very few voters. There were also very few voters in the country, with variations between constituencies on who could vote. Many major industrial towns, such as Manchester, Leeds and Birmingham had no representation in the House of Commons. These pressures were ignored by the Tories who were the dominant party from 1770 to 1830. Popular demand was high for change, especially following the outrage of the Peterloo Massacre.

In November 1830, Earl Grey, a Whig, became Prime Minister. He explained to the King, William IV, that he intended to get rid of the rotten boroughs and give representation to industrial towns. To achieve this, he asked the King to dissolve Parliament in April 1831, so he could secure a larger majority in the House of Commons to carry out his proposals. He was returned with a larger majority, and in September 1831 the Reform Bill was passed. However, the Tories enjoyed a large majority in the House of Lords, and defeated the bill.

As news of this spread, Reform Riots took place in many towns. Earl Grey, determined to get the Bill passed, asked the King in May 1832 to create a large number of Whig peers to ensure the passage of the Bill. William refused, and Earl Grey resigned. William asked the leader of the Tories, the Duke of Wellington, to form a government, but notable Tories refused to be a part of the government, notably Sir Robert Peel, who felt that carrying out this plan could lead to civil war.

With the Tories unable to form a government, the king was forced to ask Grey to return and form a government. Grey again asked the king to create new peers, and this time the king agreed. However, when news of this reached the Lords, they agreed to pass the 1832 Reform Act.

However, many were disappointed at the Act, which failed to increase the number of people who could vote, in some cases removing the right to vote of some. The frustration led to the formation of the London Working Men's Association in 1836 by William Lovett, Henry Hetherington, John Cleave and James Watson. This association published a six point charter of reform demands in 1838, and the movement became known as the Chartists. The charter called for (1) voting by ballot, (2) universal male suffrage, (3) annual Parliaments, (4) equal electoral districts, (5) no property qualifications for members of Parliament, and (6) the payment of members of parliament.

From the start, there were tensions in the Chartist movement. The four main leaders were strongly apposed to any action that could lead to violence. Lovett, acknowledged as the leader of the Chartists, believed that discussion would lead to the reforms being adopted. He argued that public meetings, publication of newspapers and pamphlets and the presentation of petitions to Parliament would eventually lead to the powers that be adopting these reforms. This was known as the Moral Force position.

Feargus O'Connor, an Irish MP, was scornful of these tactics. He made speeches saying he would "lead people to death or glory". This advocation of violent means to achieve a political end has been a feature of socialism, and, indeed, of politics for many years. Outraged by these speeches, the LWMA excluded him from their platform. In response, O'Connor set up the East London Democratic Association, and continued to use highly emotive language.

The main Chartist movement blamed O'Connor for the unsuccessful and violent Newport Rising of 1839, and ultimately he was imprisoned for sedition in March 1840. Following his release in 1841, he took control of the National Charter Association. His attacks on other Chartist leaders and advocacy of Physical Force split the Chartist movement, again a feature of socialist movements. Lovett refused to be associated with O'Connor's methods, and left the organisation.

In 1842 Thomas Duncombe presented a Chartist petition to Parliament signed by 3,250,000 people. The Chartist were infuriated by the rejection of the petition by Parliament, and a series of strikes ensued in industrial areas. These became known as the Plug Plot, due to a tactic of workers removing the boiler plugs from steam engines in factories to stop production. Eventually the army was sent in to deal with the situation, and many men were arrested and transported.

The Chartist movement ultimately failed following a protest led by Feargus O'Connor on April 10th 1848. He presented a petition to Parliament that claimed 5,706,000 signatures, but upon examination contained only 1,975,492, with many of these forgeries. This severely damaged the credibility of the movement, and led to its collapse.

The Chartists were an incredibly important movement in Britain. They argued forcefully for universal male suffrage, and many other reforms. While they were unsuccessful in achieving these aims in the lifetime of the movement, the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884, among other Acts, did bring many of these demands about.

The Chartists showed many of the traditional problems of progressive movements, such as socialism. While many will agree on the fundamental demands, the methods to achieve them are always a source of disagreement and strife. Violent revolution as opposed to moral force was the issue that led to the split of the Communists into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, for example.

After universal male suffrage, the most progressive call of the Chartists is, in my opinion, for the removal of property qualifications for MPs, and for the payment of MPs. This was in recognition that the right to participate in the democratic process not only through voting but through representation was important for all, not just the independently wealthy.

Section 4 - Socialist groups from 1848 to 1900

The main socialist groups following the collapse of the Chartists were the Christian Socialists (formed in 1848), the Social Democratic Foundation (1881), the Fabian Society (1883), the Socialist League (1884) and the Independent Labour Party (1893).

• The Christian Socialists
  

  The Christian Socialists were formed by a group of Chartists. They believed that religion and politics could not be separated, and that the church had a duty to become involved. Frederick Denison Maurice was the leader of the group, and rejected individualism, with its driving forces of competition and selfishness, and argued for a socialist alternative. The group published pamphlets and journals, before becoming dormant in 1854. The 1880s saw a revival, and numerous Christian Socialist groups sprang up. Eventually, the leadership of the movement came to dominate the Independent Labour Party.

• The Social Democratic Foundation
  

  H. M. Hyndman returned from a holiday in the United States in 1881 having read a copy of Marx's Das Capital. This encouraged him to start a Marxist organisation in Britain, the first of its kind. While the SDF never had a mass membership, it was very active. They put up candidates in the 1885 General Election, and encouraged demonstrations against low wages and unemployment. However, some members objected to the dictatorial leadership style of Hyndman, and broke away to form the Socialist League in 1884. The SDF limped on until 1900 when it joined the Labour Representative Committee, but disaffiliated in 1901.

• The Fabian Society
  

  The Fabian Society was set up as a socialist debating group in October 1883, calling itself the Fabian Society in January 1884. The name of Fabian was chosen after the Roman General Quintus Fabius Maximus, who advocated the weakening of the opposition by harassing operations rather than becoming involved in pitched battles. The society held true to this ideal, rejecting the methods of the SDF, and preferring to convince people by "rational factual socialist argument". They carried this out with the publication of a variety of influential pamphlets and by carrying out lecture tours.

  The Fabians attracted many influential socialists, and was greatly empowered by a bequest of £10,000 in 1890. The trustees of the fund decided to use it to set up the London School of Economics, to "teach political economy on more modern and more socialist lines than those on which it had been taught hitherto, and to serve at the same time as a school of higher commercial education".

  The Fabians joined the Labour Representative Committee in 1900, with the affiliation fee personally paid by Edward Pease, the society's secretary, as some members had doubts.

• The Socialist League
  

  The Socialist League was formed by a group from the SDF who objected to Hyndman's leadership. However, the group failed to gather mass support, except for a brief period in the 1890s. The group finally disbanded in 1901.

• The Independent Labour Party
  

  The Manchester Independent Labour Party was formed in Manchester in 1892. The two founders argued that the working class needed their own party to represent their interests, rather than continuing to stand as Liberal-Labour candidates. The success of this party encouraged the Lib-Lab MPs, and in 1893 they formed the Independent Labour Party, with the objective being "to secure the collective ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange". Kier Hardie was the leader of the party, and despite a lack of success in the 1895 General Election, success in West Ham, with it becoming the first local authority to have a Labour majority, encouraged him to join together with other socialist groups. This led to the Labour Representative Committee.

The lessons of the socialist groups from 1848 to 1900 are that there will always be diversity and strife in the socialist movement. The methods to achieve the ends that all agree on will always be different. Equally, the routes that people take to believe in those ends can be different. One of the most important aims for a socialist movement must be to create a consensus on the best way forward, and to stick to it. This is something that still eludes the movement.